A UK study has found that several puppy buying and early life factors were associated with later owner-reported health outcomes in dogs at 21 months of age.
The paper, published in Animal Welfare, analysed data from 985 dogs in the Royal Veterinary College’s Pandemic Puppies cohort.
Key Points
- The study followed 985 UK dogs bought in 2020, at under 16 weeks old
- Puppies sold under six weeks of age were associated with a higher number of health disorder groups at 21 months
- Puppies sold without the buyer seeing their mother were also associated with a higher number of health disorder groups
- First-time ownership was associated with a higher number of reported disorder groups
- 23.5% of owners reported spending more than expected on veterinary care
- Owners of puppies sold without a microchip were more likely to report higher-than-expected veterinary costs
- The authors state that greater enforcement and awareness of existing legislation is needed
About the study
The study was published online by Cambridge University Press on 1 April 2026 and appears in Animal Welfare.
Researchers analysed data from the Pandemic Puppies Research Programme, a longitudinal survey launched by the Royal Veterinary College in 2020.
The study followed dogs acquired in the UK during 2020, when they were under 16 weeks old, and examined outcomes when they reached 21 months of age.
The analysis explored associations between acquisition practices, early-life experiences, owner and dog demographics, and later owner-reported health outcomes.
What the researchers found
Of 931 owners who answered a question on health problems since puppyhood, 851 (91.14%) reported that their dog had experienced at least one health problem by 21 months of age.
The study identified several factors associated with a higher number of owner-reported health disorder groups at 21 months.
These included:
- puppies sold under six weeks of age
- puppies sold without the buyer seeing their mother before purchase
- dogs owned by first-time dog owners
The final model also included associations with a higher number of reported disorder groups in male dogs, purebred dogs, and dogs whose owners reported early health concerns.
Veterinary costs
Information on owners’ expectations of veterinary costs was available for 936 owners.
Of these:
- 607 (64.85%) said costs were as expected
- 220 (23.5%) said they had spent more than expected
- 98 (10.47%) said they had spent less than expected
- 11 (1.18%) were unsure
The study found that owners were more likely to report higher-than-expected veterinary costs if their puppy had been sold without a microchip.
Other associated factors included insurance status, early health concerns, and breeder-provided vaccinations.
Health problems reported at 21 months
The study reported several common disorder groups across the cohort.
Among all owner-reported disorders, regardless of whether veterinary advice was sought, the most prevalent grouped disorders were:
- enteropathy (75.4%)
- skin disorders (26.8%)
- ophthalmological disorders (25.1%)
- upper respiratory tract disorders (18.5%)
- ear disorders (17.6%)
For veterinary-treated disorders, the most prevalent grouped disorders were:
- enteropathy (18.0%)
- traumatic injuries (10.3%)
- ophthalmological disorders (8.3%)
- ear disorders (7.2%)
- musculoskeletal disorders (6.8%)
- skin disorders (6.8%)
Legal context
The paper notes that it is illegal in the UK to sell a puppy under eight weeks of age.
It also states that, under legislation in England, Scotland and Wales, puppies must not be sold via third parties and buyers must see the puppy with its mother in its place of birth.
The authors link their findings to these existing legal requirements and state that greater enforcement and awareness are needed.
What the paper says
In its conclusion, the paper states that longer-term canine health outcomes are associated with how and from where a puppy is acquired.
It highlights that puppies sold under six weeks of age, or sold without buyers seeing their mother, were associated with a higher number of owner-reported disorder groups at 21 months.
The authors also report that around one in four owners felt veterinary costs were higher than expected by this stage.
You can read the full study here
FAQ’s
What did the study investigate?
The study examined whether puppy buying practices, early-life experiences, and owner characteristics were associated with later health outcomes in dogs at 21 months of age.
How many dogs were included?
The analysis included 985 dogs from the UK Pandemic Puppies cohort.
Which buying practices were associated with later health outcomes?
Puppies sold under six weeks of age and those sold without the buyer seeing the mother were associated with a higher number of owner-reported health disorder groups.
Are these findings based on veterinary records?
No. The study uses owner-reported data, grouped into broader disorder categories.
Need support with your puppy?
Find qualified, welfare-led professionals near you:
https://www.yappily.co.uk
Further information
Dale FC, O’Neill DG, Brand CL, Belshaw Z, Merritt BL, Pegram CL and Packer RMA.
Sold a pup? Impact of purchasing practices, owner and dog demographics, and puppy early-life experiences on later canine health outcomes in the UK.
Animal Welfare (2026), e18.
DOI: 10.1017/awf.2026.10077
Add a comment